You can't have a healthy economy without a healthy environment.
We need not choose between breathing clean air and bringing home
secure paychecks. The fact is, our environmental problems result
not from robust growth, but from reckless growth. The fact is
that only a prosperous society can have the confidence and the
means to protect its environment. And the fact is healthy communities
and environmentally sound products and services do best in today's
economic competition.
President Bill Clinton
In 1993 the nexus between the economy and the environment was
never more clear. Continued economic growth is based on the availability
of material and energy resources and an environment that is clean
and healthy. Protecting the natural environment requires a nation
to be flexible, to make tradeoffs-a fundamental tenant of economics-and
to recognize the benefits and costs of the choices made.
Markets are shaped by consumer's choices of goods and services
and producer's choices of inputs. Although the market price of
a product indicates its worth to consumers, the price of use of
natural resources does not always have a monetary value that can
be as easily quantified. Because the nation values the benefits
provided by the environment, and is now acknowledging the costs
associated with loss of environmental amenities, the federal government
and the American people as a whole have taken action to protect
the environment and continue on this path.
In addition to environmental cost accounting, major trends in
1993 included a growing interest in sustainable development and
in using an ecosystem approach to management as a way to achieve
it.
In September 1993 the National Performance Review issued an accompanying
report entitled, Reinventing Environmental Management, that calls
for improved federal decisionmaking through environmental cost
accounting. The NPR recommended the following actions:
The EPA, DOD, and OMB should develop pilot programs to demonstrate
the use of environmental cost accounting by the federal government.
The report calls for the EPA and the DOD Office of the Deputy
Under Secretary for Environmental Security, in consultation with
the OMB, to convene an interagency working group with the following
responsibilities:
. Develop demonstration projects to test the applicability and
effectiveness of environmental cost accounting in the federal
government; and
. Formulate accounting guidelines for the demonstration projects.
The Environmental Cost Accounting Working Group should report
on the demonstration projects and make recommendations on the
use of environmental cost accounting in the federal government.
The NPR calls for the interagency working group to report results
of the projects and recommendations on the extent to which environmental
cost accounting could be implemented throughout the federal government.
The President should issue a directive to implement environmental
cost accounting in the federal government. Based on the recommended
guidelines from the interagency working group, the President should
issue a directive to agencies to incorporate environmental cost
accounting into the appropriate decisionmaking processes.
Sustainable development offers an opportunity to gauge the relationship
between economic development and environmental protection. The
1987 report of the World Commission on Environment and Development
(the Brundtland Commission) defines sustainable development as
that which -meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.- Sustainable development ensures that future generations
have access to the -social capital---human, natural, and physical
capital-to create a life at least equal to that of this generation.
Similarly, the National Environmental Policy Act declares that
it is the continuing policy of the Federal Government to create
and maintain conditions under which man and nature can exist in
productive harmony and fulfil the social economic and other requirements
of present and future generations.
Economic growth is a driving force for improved welfare and environmental
quality. An improvement in either the environment or the economy
need not be at the expense of the other. Since the aim of sustainable
development is to achieve an equilibrium between economic and
environmental resources to enable future generations to enjoy
a standard of living at least equivalent to ours, improved methods
for calculating the value of environmental resources are required.
To meet the challenge of sustainable development, the federal
government continued in 1993 to seek ways to integrate environmental,
economic, and social policies to reduce the cost, reduce the conflict,
and reap the benefits of environmental protection.
Established by Executive Order 12852 on June 29, 1993, the President's
Council On Sustainable Development is a 25-member partnership
of high-ranking representatives from industry, government, environmental,
labor and civil rights organizations. The partnership is charged
with developing bold new approaches to integrate economic and
environmental policies. By charter the Council shall have the
following duties:
. Advise the President on matters involving sustainable development.
In furtherance of the mission, the Council will develop and recommend
to the President a national sustainable development action strategy
to foster economic vitality.
. Advise the President on fashioning an annual Presidential Award
recognizing exemplary efforts in advancing sustainable development
ideals; submit nominations for the award to the President.
. Advise the President on conducting a public awareness and participation
campaign on appropriate uses of the nation's natural and cultural
resources.
The EPA estimates that U.S. public and private sector costs for
1993 pollution abatement and control were $123.7 billion. The
estimated distribution of costs among economic sectors in 1993
revealed that private industry had the greatest total share (62
percent), followed by local governments (22 percent), the federal
government (13 percent) and state government (3 percent). Of total
U.S. expenditures, $67 billion (54 percent) were associated with
operating, maintenance, and administrative expenses, and the remaining
$57 billion (46 percent) reflected the annual depreciation of
the stock of pollution control capital equipment.
The potential value of recycling materials that today are discarded
as wastes has implications for the environment and the economy.
Wastes are a byproduct of delivery and consumption of four basic
commodities that support modern society: food, water, energy,
and materials a catch-all term for everything else. The nation
uses renewable and nonrenewable resources to manufacture materials.
Forestry and agricultural products, for example, provide renewable
materials, and minerals and fossil fuels provide nonrenewable
materials. The use of these materials to manufacture the goods
that have become an essential part of modern society-machines,
housing, roads, cars, packaging, and other consumer products has
increased over the years.
Material input to the U.S. economy in 1990 provides a snapshot
of current material use patterns on a weight basis and their implications
for environmental risk. Trends in material usage reflect historical
consumption and recycling patterns. Of the 2.5 billion metric
tons of materials consumed by the nation, only 10 percent were
recycled. Without changes in technology, the quantity of residuals
or waste produced increases directly in relation to material use.
Three critical issues relate to this equation:
. Potential resource scarcity;
. The limited capacity of the environment to absorb residuals;
and
. Environmental hazards associated with toxic residuals.
Of the 487 million metric tons of residuals released to the environment,
excluding associated water or nonmineralized waste, 57 percent
was post-consumer waste, 28 percent was waste from dissipated
uses with limited potential for recovery, and 15 percent was processing
waste.
As material flows increase, the waste products from extraction,
processing, use, and ultimate disposal of materials also increase.
A combination of change in industry practice, economic incentives,
new technology development, shift in material use, and change
in consumer behavior will change the growing residuals-producing
trend. If not, current environmental problems will worsen unless
the ability of the environment to absorb waste is increased with
better and more costly methods of solid waste disposal.
Construction Materials. Construction minerals such as stone
and gravel represented the nation's largest material use, with
1.8 billion metric tons or 70 percent of total U.S. apparent consumption.
Of these minerals 7.8 percent were recycled. Of the total residual
waste, 235 million metric tons or 48 percent were from construction
materials released into the environment. These materials are essentially
extracted and used without any change in their chemical composition
and are associated with visibility, noise, and dust. Most of the
residuals are post-consumer waste (135 million tons or 58 percent);
processing creates 63 million metric tons; and dissipative use
creates 37 million metric tons of residuals.
Industrial Minerals. Consumption of industrial minerals,
such as those used to produce fertilizer and road salt, totaled
330 million metric tons, with 7.6 percent from recycled materials.
Release of industrial mineral residuals totaled 129 million metric
tons. Although these materials undergo processing that can alter
physical and chemical properties and concentrations, they create
a relatively small amount of processing waste (5 million metric
tons). Most of the waste is related to dissipative uses (98 million
metric tons), followed by post-consumer releases (26 million metric
tons). Some commodities in this group are harmful to the environment
such as cadmium, asbestos, fertilizers, and road salt.
Metals. Consumption of metals amounted to 112 million metric
tons, but 54 percent were recycled materials. Residuals released
to the environment by metal extraction and processing totaled
20 million metric tons. For several commodities in this group,
releases associated with the processing and manufacturing phase
and, to a lesser extent, post-consumer waste are cause for concern.
Although not included in the residuals total, extraction waste
near mining locations can cause environmental problems.
Plastics. The use of organic feedstocks to create plastic
is growing rapidly and has created concern about the increasing
volume of material in municipal landfills. Furthermore, plastics
contain additives, such as colorants, stabilizers, and plasticizers,
that may contain toxic constituents such as cadmium and lead;
plastics contribute 28 percent of all cadmium found in municipal
waste and approximately 2 percent of all lead. Plastics that contain
heavy metal-based additives may contribute to the metal content
of incinerator ash. Some feedstock producers are establishing
collection networks and secondary markets that could improve recycling
rates. Because only 2 percent of plastics are recycled, virtually
all of these materials are landfilled or incinerated.
Renewable Organics. The total for renewable organic material
consumption was 231 million metric tons, including wood products
such as lumber and paper and nonfood agricultural products such
as tobacco, vegetable oils, and cotton. Of these 8 percent were
recycled materials. Residuals of renewable organics amounted to
80 million metric tons. Dissipative use represented 1.2 percent
of the total, while post-consumer waste represented 99 percent.
Renewable organics create environmental problems with the large
quantity of paper in the post-consumer wastestream and the process
wastes, including chemical releases, associated with papermaking.
Other than wood pulp and tobacco, renewable organics do not create
significant environmental problems.
Nonrenewable Organics. Consumption of nonrenewable organic
materials derived from petroleum and natural gas, such as plastics,
synthetic rubber, asphalt, and manmade textiles, totaled 113 million
metric tons, with only 2.7 percent produced from recycled materials.
Residuals from post-consumer waste totaled 21 million metric tons.
Extraction wastes are generally low, but processing and manufacturing
wastes can create local environmental problems. Data on the amount
of releases during these stages are incomplete.
Animal Products. Consumption of nonfood animal products,
such as leather and furs, was the lowest of all groups at 2 million
metric tons, of which only 1 percent were recycled. Residuals
nearly equaled the quantity of apparent consumption (2 million
metric tons), with most residuals associated with dissipative
uses. Processing waste discharged was 20,000 metric tons, and
post-consumer waste, another 50,000 metric tons. These materials
are renewable and normally biodegradable.
Among the growing number and scope of international activities
concerned with environmental protection policies, a subject of
increasing attention is the relationship of environmental policies
and practice to international trade.
Federal Policymaking. In the United States, a number of federal
departments and agencies, including the Office of the U.S. Trade
Representative (USTR), State Department, Environmental Protection
Agency, and the departments of Commerce, Treasury, Agriculture,
Labor, Interior, Energy, and Health and Human Services, participate
in trade environmental policymaking. Together these federal agencies
are seeking to develop information to better understand the linkages
between trade and the environment and to make trade and environmental
policies compatible with sustainable development.
International Dialogues. The United States is actively
participating in a number of international dialogues regarding
trade and the environment, including the new World Trade Organization,
Committee on Trade and the Environment; the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), Trade and Environment Joint
Experts Committee; and the United Nations Environment Program/United
Nations Commission on Trade and Development (UNEP/UNCTAD) joint
work program on trade and environment.
Trade in Environmental Protection Equipment. A 1993 EPA
report entitled International Trade in Environmental Protection
Equipment: An Assessment of Existing Data, estimates total
U.S. imports, exports, and trade balances for environmental protection
equipment between 1980 and 1992. Estimates include trade levels
in environmental protection equipment for air, water, and other
environmental media. The EPA also examined bilateral trade flows
between the United States and selected U.S. trading partners.
The report found that the United States is a major exporter of
environmental protection equipment, in general, and of air pollution
control equipment in particular. Only 21 percent of the air pollution
control equipment sold in the United States is supplied by imports.
The United States enjoyed a surplus of trade in environmental
equipment for all purposes of $1.1 billion in 1991, and this surplus
has been increasing since 1989. Between 1989 and 1991, U.S. exports
increased approximately 70 percent, while imports increased 45
percent. The nation has been operating positive trade balances
with most of its major trading partners in environmental protection
equipment since 1989. The largest surpluses in 1991 were held
with Canada and Japan.
protection equipment, 1989-1991.
Exports Imports Trade Balance
Country 1989 1990 1991 1989 1990 1991 1989 1990 1991
Canada 126, 945 383,331 420,399 94,3 91 117, 410 102,901 32,554
265,921 317,498
France 43,482 57,261 71,104 19,6 92 19,781 24,2 53 23,79 0 37,480
46,851
Germany 33,6 74 40,588 97,161 52,524 61,910 88,0 57 (18,8 50)
(21,3 22) 9,104
Japan 142, 239 138,13 3 319,78 9 71,5 56 92,1 40 118, 102 70,68
3 45,993 201,687
Mexico 53,5 12 69,699 94,720 11,2 68 16,6 34 18,5 61 42,24 4 53,065
76,159
Republic
of Korea 50,182 49,152 57,959 1,58 9 3,073 4,680 48,57 3 46,079
53,279
Republic
of China 66,586 59,707 72,427 13,8 48 21,943 18,8 63 52,73 8 37,764
45,726
United
Kingdom 74,291 38,227 98,282 28,565 63,320 45,5 32 45,726 (25,093)
52,750
Total1 975,158 1,310,254 1,680,021 409,667 501,391 566,921 565,491
808,863 1,113,100
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, International Trade
in Environmental Protection Equipment: An Assessment of Existing
Data, EPA 230-R-93-006, (Washington, DC: EPA, July 1993), Table
6, page 29 and Table 8, page 25.
In 1993 the federal government made progress in establishing methods
of environmental accounting and valuation to characterize the
benefits provided by the environment. A major component has been
the recognition in recent years of the value of ecosystems.
In 1993 the EPA continued to support the work of the Ecological
Economic Forum, a group of ecologists, economists, and other social
scientists that began meeting in 1991 to advance the state of
the art of ecosystem valuation methods. The deliberations of this
forum led to recommendations for integrated research as a means
to improve linkages between ecological and economic methods and
to develop improved protocols for valuation studies.
The EPA has initiated a case study of the Patuxent River watershed
in Maryland, intended to contribute to the general development
of integrated ecological-economic modeling. The research will
develop methods for valuing ecosystem configurations and services
from them. The effort seeks to model the interaction of the ecosystem
and human activity, illustrating how humans intervene in the ecosystem
and how different ecosystem configurations contribute to human
welfare.
In 1993 the Bureau of Economic Analysis prepared modified gross
domestic product (GDP) national income and product accounts for
publication in 1994. Prepared with support from the National Biological
Survey in the Department of the Interior, these accounts reflect
the depletion of selected natural resources and also the -discovery-
of natural resources as a result of exploration. The national
income and product accounts, designed to help government agencies
interpret the processes that produce current income and future
wealth, have been used as a tool for policy analysis for the last
50 years. In this regard incorporating elements of the environment
into the national accounting framework will improve the quality
of the accounts and the policy options available.
The EPA is exploring methods to introduce environmental considerations
into conventional economic accounting systems. A pilot study of
environmental accounting in the Chesapeake Bay region was conducted
by the EPA and reviewed by the Science Advisory Board's Environmental
Economics Advisory Committee (EEAC). Based on the EEAC review
of the study, the EPA published a report evaluating the potential
of environmental accounting to capture environmental concerns,
as well as the difficulties in such an exercise in 1993. EPA environmental
accounting work will focus on the approach proposed in the draft
handbook on Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting prepared
by the United Nations Statistical Office. In particular the EPA
is investigating the feasibility of expanding an ongoing economic
input-output (I-O) study of environmental protection activities
to include environmental measures such as air and water discharges.
The I-O study follows protocols defined by the Department of Commerce
and is used to measure who buys and sells goods and services from
whom within defined industrial and governmental sectors found
throughout the economy. The introduction of air and water discharges
would make more explicit the non-priced economic service the environment
provides as a result of its ability to assimilate pollutant discharges
allowed under existing air and water permits. IF this approach
is deemed feasible and reasonable, the EPA will develop set of
environmental accounts using this framework.
The nation has achieved considerable progress in protecting natural
resources and the environment as the result of establishing environmental
standards and regulations. Prior to passage of U.S. environmental
laws, the absence of ownership of these public goods contributed
to the decline in environmental quality. The development of standards
succeeded in making more explicit the costs to the environment
of human activity.
Much of the early environmental legislation and policies focused
on developing standards and dictating engineering solutions to
rectify the most obvious environmental hazards. Many of these
environmental improvements led consumers and producers to invest
in environmental pollution controls. The early emphasis on command-and-control
solutions to environmental problems, while in many ways successful
in achieving environmental goals, has proved to be expensive.
Furthermore, many environmental problems do not easily lend themselves
to these same control measures. The complexity of controlling
large numbers of dispersed pollution sources demands that alternative
policies and economic tools be used to resolve these issues.
The federal government has moved to adopt more market-based incentives
and other economic tools to help reduce the costs associated with
environmental requirements. For example, using a market-based
approach, the government specifies an environmental goal, such
as a 50-percent reduction in emissions of a given compound within
a geographic area, and then provides flexibility to the industry
in choosing how to meet that goal in the most cost-effective manner.
As a result of these efforts, market-based incentives have moved
from relative obscurity to a tool for improving the environment
while departing from -command and control- regulations and sometimes
offering opportunities to reduce cost. The 1990 Clean Air Act
amendments has led the EPA to propose and promulgate incentive-based
mechanisms for the control of acid rain, for the development of
cleaner burning gasoline and less polluting vehicles, for states
to use in controlling urban ozone and carbon monoxide, and to
facilitate the reduction of toxic air emissions.
As other key environmental statutes-are up for reauthorization,
incentive mechanisms promise to be actively considered as environmental
legislative proposals make their way through Congress. The EPA
is preparing analysis of numerous possible incentives to support
this dialogue. Some states have implemented incentive programs,
and others are considering such proposals.
The evidence on the environmental effects of economic incentives,
while much less extensive than that on economic efficiency, suggests
that incentive mechanisms are fully compatible with environmental
objectives (see the incentives table, which describes different
types of incentive instruments, some of which are further distinguished
on the basis of when the incentive becomes effective). Incentives
can establish a system of rewards for innovation through a variety
of specific mechanisms. Some incentive mechanisms establish prices
indirectly through market transactions. Within this group are
information reporting requirements, such as Title III of the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act. Others, such as pollution
fees and various trading systems, including the EPA air emission
trading program, transferrable development rights, and marketable
effluent discharge credits, are other types of incentives.
Some new systems as yet not fully implemented hold out considerable
promise for being both effective and efficient in reducing pollution.
Beverage container deposits appear to have greatly reduced litter,
but limited knowledge is available on the impact of other deposit-refund
systems and virtually no analysis of the costs and benefits of
any of the deposit-refund mechanisms is available.
As in the United States, official interest in economic incentives
appears to be increasing in Europe. A review of the use of economic
incentives outside the United States suggests a preference for
a somewhat different mix of incentive mechanisms. The United States
uses many more marketable permit systems than do European countries,
but much less environmental labeling. Although charges and fees
are used more widely in Europe, they tend to be revenue-raising
instruments with few incentive impacts, just as in the United
States. The lack of incentive impact of charges is due primarily
to their low magnitude and because a number of the charges are
not closely linked to waste generation or product consumption.
In 1993 the Administration's National Performance Review identified
the use of market systems as a tool to further investigate for
achieving environmental standards in a cost-effective manner.
Among the set of market-based tools, trading systems have drawn
the greatest overall attention of environmental managers.
Although all trading programs require some involvement of a pollution
control agency, the extent of that involvement varies substantially.
The nature of the pollutants being controlled and the production
practices of the firms being regulated serve to steer which types
of trading are feasible. Besides these factors a number of general
conditions can be used to differentiate among trading programs
(see attributes table).
For example, trading programs can occur among different firms
or different parts of an individual firm's production operations-both
of which could take into account matters of quantity and timing
of emissions. Trading among firms is often used to take advantage
of relative cost efficiencies that may arise as a consequence
of new, cleaner technologies not uniformly adopted by firms, such
as an acid rain trading program. Trading within a firm's production
process allows the firm to target those steps in the production
process that can be modified to reduce emissions, or similarly,
to select cost-effective solutions involving a number of processes
in those cases where multiple outputs are produced, such as the
steel industry effluent bubble.
Another factor in operating a trading program involves whether
mass emissions limits are required. Mass emission limits prescribe
the total emissions that a polluter may emit over a designated
period of time. Issues concerning such limits include setting
a baseline, the nature of the pollutant such as bioaccumulative
and transport properties, accurate emissions monitoring, and defining
penalties provisions that are limit-related. The geographic area
for which trades are permitted is largely determined by the type
of pollutant. If the pollutant spreads widely and has adverse
effects at the low concentrations found at distant points, the
geographic area is likely to be large, such as chlorofluorocarbons.
Other pollutants such as wood stove emissions may have adverse
effects primarily on a small local or regional area.
Most published studies on the subject have been based upon exante
analysis of costs and anticipated market behavior. Because of
the potential impacts nationwide of acid rain and climate change,
the EPA is committed to assessing the cost savings of trading
programs. The objective is to provide further empirical evidence
of the efficacy of trading as a means of reducing the cost of
environmental protection.
The EPA is forging partnerships with other federal agencies and
departments to provide innercity residents and minority businesses
with opportunities connected to eliminating environmental hazards
in their communities. Partnerships assist in carrying out the
federal commitment to use programs and activities to advance environmental
protection in urban communities. These programs also create minority
business entrepreneurial opportunities, job training, and placement
by stimulating economic growth and development in the community.
Innercity problems such as substandard water and air quality,
toxics in the home (lead, asbestos, and indoor air pollution),
and energy conservation are of paramount concern at the community,
municipal, state, and federal levels.
The EPA Office of Environmental Equity (OEE) is sponsoring Community
Economic Development Projects such as the following:
Mercado Project. An OEE training grant funds the California
State University at Hayward to prepare a business management training
program and business plan for its Mercado Project in the Asian-American
community in the San Francisco Bay area. The project is developing
a public education center and small business incubator for retail
outlets and related manufacturing, such as assembly facilities
of high-value-added products made using secondary materials as
a feedstock. The project will train and employ diverse members
of the community who would be less likely to have these entrepreneurial
and job opportunities without such training and business development.
Unemployed residents will learn to convert recyclable woods and
plastics into furniture that can be sold to provide revenue for
the community.
District of Columbia Lead Abatement. A memorandum of agreement
among the EPA, departments of Housing and Urban Development and
Commerce, and the District of Columbia has led to a project that
trains unemployed residents of D.C. public housing units in lead
paint remediation and abatement. Once trained and certified, the
District has pledged to hire workers to start on remediating lead
from the units. The partnership will help residents interested
in forming their own small businesses or link them with existing
small businesses. Any companies formed will be eligible for noncompetitive
contracts through the HUD Title 3 program. In a closed system,
residents are trained, certified, and hired to clean up their
communities- own environments to reduce lead exposure and improve
environmental quality in their neighborhood. The project could
serve as a model for other urban areas with lead problems.
Hazardous Waste Management Technicians. The EPA Superfund
Office is funding Cuyahoga Community College in Ohio to train
unemployed residents as hazardous waste management technicians.
Private industries in the area have agreed to employ trained residents
in local cleanup efforts. The Cuyahoga project offers residents
the option of working toward Associate of Arts degrees or of enrolling
in 4-year degrees at a consortium college.
Xavier University Study. The EPA Office of Small and Disadvantaged
Business Utilization (OSDBU) provided $115,000 of Clean Air Funds
to Xavier University, a historically black university in New Orleans,
Louisiana, to study clean air issues affecting small and disadvantaged
businesses in small communities along a corridor with high incidence
of cancer. Study results will provide the residents of these communities
with a Plan of Action to determine their environmental needs.
The OSDBU is evaluating other economic development initiatives
to provide minority communities additional opportunities to participate
in the environmental marketplace.
Executive Office of the President, The NAFTA Expanding U.S. Exports,
Jobs, and Growth: Report on Environmental Issues, (Washington,
DC: EOP, November 1993).
Council of Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President,
(Washington, DC: EOP, CEA, February 1994).
Office of Management and Budget, The Budget for Fiscal Year
1993, (Washington, DC: EOP, OMB, 1993).
Rogich, D.G. and Staff, Division of Mineral Commodities, United
States and Global Material Use Patterns, (Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, September 1993).
Rutledge, G.L. and C.R. Vogan, -Pollution Abatement and Control
Expenditures, 1972-92,- Survey of Current Business 36-44
(May 1994).
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Government
Finances: 1990-91 (Washington, DC: DOC, BOC, November 1993).
Pollution Abatement Costs and Expenditures, 1992, (Washington,
DC: DOC, BOC, March 1994).
State Government Finances: 1992 (Washington, DC: DOC, BOC,
October 1993).
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, -Materials and
the Environment,- Minerals Today, Our Material World: A Special
Edition (April 1993).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Investments:
The Cost of Clean, (Washington, DC: EPA, December 1990).
Conditions and Trends
Reinventing Environmental Management: Cost Accounting
Sustainable Development
President's Council On Sustainable Development
Expenditures and Revenues
Flow of Materials
International Trade and the Environment
U.S. exports, imports, and trade balance for environmental
(thousands of current dollars)
Program Accomplishments
Environmental Accounting and Valuation
Environmental Accounting
Harnessing Market Forces
Trading Systems
Environmental Concerns and Innercity Economics
REFERENCES
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